Sweden

'SWEDEN' [Sverige], a kingdom of northern Europe, occupying the eastern and larger part of the Scandinavian peninsula. It is bounded N.E. by Finland (Russian Empire), E. by the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, S.W. by the Cattegat and Skagerrack, and W. by Norway. It extends from 69° 3' 21" to 55° 20' 18" N., and from 11° 6' 19" E. on the south-west coast to 24° 9' II" E. on the Finnish frontier, the extreme length being about 990 m., the extreme breadth (mainland) about 250 m., and the total area estimated at 173,547 sq. m. Out of a detailed total estimate of the boundary line at 6too m., 4737 m. are coastal, the Norwegian frontier is 1030 m., and the Finnish 333 m.

Table of contents

1 Physical Features 2 Geology 3 Flora 4 Fauna 5 People 6 Travel and Communications 7 Agriculture 8 Forests and Forestry 9 Fisheries 10 Mining 11 Manufactures 12 Commerce 13 Banks 14 Coinage 15 Finance 16 Constitution and Government 17 Local Government 18 Religion 19 Education 20 Scientific Institutions 21 AUTH0RITIEs 22 Swedish Philosophy 23 Authorities

Physical Features

The backbone of the Scandinavian peninsula is a range, or series of masses, of mountains (in Swedish Kolen, 1 the keel) extending through nearly the whole length of the peninsula towards the western side. The eastern or Swedish flank has, therefore, the slighter slope. This range forms, in a measure, a natural boundary between Sweden and Norway from the extreme north to the north of Svealand, the central of the three main territorial divisions of Sweden (Norrland, Svealand and Gotaland); though this boundary is not so well markd that the political frontier may follow it throughout. Sweden itself may be considered in four main physical divisions - the mountains and highland district, covering all Norrland and the western part of Svealand; the lowlands of central Sweden; the so-called Sma.land highlands, in the south and southeast; and the plains of Ska.ne, occupying the extreme southward projection of the peninsula.

The first district, thus defined, is much the largest, and includes the greatest elevations in the country and the finest scenery. The highest mountains are found in the north, the bold peak of Kebnekaise reaching 7005 ft., Sarjektjacko, 6972 ft., being the loftiest point of a magnificent group including the Sarjeksfjall, Alkasfjall and Partefjall, which range from 6500 ft. upwards; and, farther south, Sulitelma, 6158 ft., long considered the highest point in Scandinavia. Elevation then decreases slightly, through Stuorevarre (5787 ft.) and Areskutan (4656 ft.), to the south of which the railway from Trondhjem in Norway into Sweden crosses the fine pass at Storlien. South of this again, before the main chain passes into Norway, are such heights as Helagsfjall (5896 ft.) and Storsylen (5781 ft.); and a group of mountains in the northern part of the province of Dalecarlia (Dalarnel ranges from 3600 to 4500 ft. in height. The neighbourhood of Areskutan and the Dalarne highlands, owing to the railway and the development of communications by steamer on the numerous lakes, are visited by considerable numbers of travellers, both Swedish and foreign, in summer; but the northern heights, crossed only by a few unfrequented tracks, are known to few, and to a considerable extent, indeed, have not been closely explored. From the scenic standpoint the relatively small elevation of these mountains finds compensation in the low snow-line, which ranges from about 3000 ft. in the north to 5500 ft. in the south of the region. All the higher parts are thus snow-clad; and glaciers, numerous in the north, occur as far south as the Helagsfjall. The outline of the mountains is generally rounded, the rocks having been subjected to erosion from a very early geological age, but hard formations cause bold peaks at several points, as in Kebnekaise and the Sarjeksfj ?,ll.

1 In Swedish the definite article (masc. and fem. en, neut, et) is added as a suffix to the substantive (when there is no epithet). Geographical terms are similarly suffixed to names, thus Dalelfven, the river Dal. The commonest geographical terms are: elf, strom, river; sjo, lake; o, island; holm, small island; fjall, mountain, group or range; dal, valley; vik, bay. In Norrland the following terms are common: a, river, often attached to the names of the large rivers, as Torne5., Lulea. (although properly it means a smaller river than elf); the names of towns at their mouths always following this form; treisk (local, properly meaning marsh), jaur (Lapp), afva, lake (provincial Swedish, properly a kind of creek opening from a river). A is pronounced o.

From the spinal mountain range a series of large rivers run in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Bothnia. In their upper of parts they drain great lakes which have resulted from Rivers North. the formation of morainic dams, and in some cases the perhaps from the incidence of erratic upheaval of the land. All lie at elevations between 900 and 1300 ft. All are narrow in comparison with their length, which is not infrequently magnified to view when two lakes are connected by a very short stretch of running water with a navigable fall of a few feet, such as those between Hornafvan, Uddjaur and Storafvan on the Skellefte river. The following are the principal rivers from north to south: The Tome, which with its tributary the Muonio, forms the boundary with Finland, has a length of 227 m., and drains lake Tome (Tornetrdsk), the area of which is 126 sq. m. The Kalix is 208 m. in length. The Lule is formed of two branches, Stora and Lilla (Great and Little) Lule; the length of the main stream is 193 m. The Stora Lule branch drains the Langas and Stora Lule lakes (Langasjaur, Luletrask), which have a length together exceeding 5 o m., a fall between them of some 16 ft. and a total area of only 87 sq. m., as they are very narrow. Below Stora Lule lake the river forms the Harsprang (hare's leap; Njuommelsaska of the Lapps), the largest and one of the finest cataracts in Europe. The sheer fall is about 100 ft., and there is a further fall of 150 ft. in a series of tremendous rapids extending for 14 m. Farther up, at the head of Langasjaur, is the Stora Sjofall (great lake fall; Lapp, Atna Muorki Kartje), a fall of 130 ft. only less grand than the Harsprang. Both are situated in an almost uninhabited country and are rarely visited. Following the Pite river (191 m.), the Skellefte (205 m.) drains Hornafvan and Storafvan, with a fall of 20 ft., and an area together of 275 sq. m. Hornafvan is a straight and sombre trough, flanked by high hills of unbroken slope, but Storaf van and the intervening Uddjaur are broad, throwing off deep irregular inlets, and picturesquely studded with numerous islets. The Ume (237 m.) receives a tributary, the Vindel, of almost equal length, on the north bank some 20 m. from its mouth, and among several lakes drains Stor Uman (64 sq. m.). The further principal rivers of this region are the Angerman (242 m.), Indal (196 m.), draining the large lakes Kallsjo and Storsjo, Ljusnan (230 m.), Dal and Klar. Of these the two last rise in the southernmost part of the mountain region described, but do not as a whole belong to the region under consideration. The Angerman receives the waters of a wider system of streams and lakes than the rivers north of it, and has thus a drainage area of 12,591 sq. m., which is exceeded only by that of the Tome (16,690 sq. m.), the average of the remaining rivers named being about 7700 sq. m.

Beyond the Harsprang and the Stora Sjofall the northern rivers do not generally form great falls, though many of the rapids are grand. The Indal, by changing its course in 1796 near Bispgarden on the northern railway, has left bare the remarkable bed of a fall called Doda (dead) Fall, in which many " giant's caldrons " are exposed. In the uplands above the chain of lakes called Stromsvattudal, which are within the drainage area on the Angerman, the Hailing stream forms the magnificent Hdllingsa Fall. In the southern mountain valleys of the region there are several beautiful falls, such as the Tannfors, not far from Areskutan, the Storbo, Handol and Rista.

Eastward from the main mountain range the highland region is divided into two belts: a middle belt of morainic deposits and marshes, and a coastal belt. The middle belt is gently undulating; viewed from rare eminences the landscape over the boundless forests resembles a dark green sea, through which the great rivers flow straight between steep, flat-topped banks, with long quiet reaches broken by occasional rapids. The few lakes they form in this belt are rather mere widenings in their courses; but the tributary streams drain numerous small lakes and peat-mosses. In the extreme north this belt is almost flat, a few low hills standing isolated and conspicuous; and the rivers have serpentine courses, while steep banks are absent. The middle belt merges into the coastal belt, covered by geologically recent marine deposits, reaching an extreme height of 700 to 800 ft., and extending inland some 60 to 80 m. in the north and 40 m. in the south. Small fertile plains are characteristic, and the rivers have cut deep into the soft deposits of sand and clay, leaving lofty and picturesque bluffs (nipor). The orographical division of the central lowlands bears comparison in formation with the coastal belt of marine deposits to the north. Here are flat fertile plains of clay, well Central Lowlands. wooded, with innumerable lakes, including the four Low great lakes, Vener, Vetter, Malar and Hjelmar. These, except the last, far exceed in area any of the northern lakes, and even Hjelmar (185 sq. m.) is only exceeded by Hornafvan-Storafvan. The areas of the other three lakes are respectively 21 49, 733 and 449 sq. m. Vener, Vetter and Hjelmar are broad and open; Molar is very irregular in form, and of great length. Molar, Vener and Hjelmar contain many islands; in Vetter there are comparatively few. None of the lakes is of very great depth, the deepest sounding occurring in Vetter, 390 ft. In Hjelmar, which measures 38 m. from east to west, and is 12 m. in extreme width, the greatest depth is only 59 ft., but as its flat shores were formerly subject to inundation its level was sunk 6 ft. by deepening the navigable channel through it and clearing out various waterways (the Eskilstuna river, Hjelmar canal, &c.) in 1878-1887. The scenery of these lakes, though never grand, is always quietly beautiful, especially in the case of Molar, the wooded shores and islands of which form a notable feature in the pleasant environs of the city of Stockholm. The elevation of the central lowlands seldom exceeds 300 ft., but a few isolated heights of Silurian rock appear, such as Kinnekulle, rising 988 ft. above sea-level on the south-eastern shore of Vener, Billingen (978 ft.) between that lake and Vetter, and Omberg (863 ft.) on the eastern shore of Vetter. Noteworthy local features in the landscape of the central lowlands are the eskers or gravel-ridges ((tsar), traversing the land in a direction from N.N.W. to S.S.E., from zoo to 200 ft. in height above the surrounding surface. Typical instances occur in the cities of Stockholm (Brunkebergsasen) and Upsala (Upsala-i sen).

South of the central lowlands the so-called Smaland highlands extend over the old province of Smaland in the south-east, and lie roughly south of Lake Vetter and of Gothenburg, S m aland where. they reach the south-west coast. The general elevation of this region exceeds 300 ft., and in the eastern part 600 ft.; the principal heights are Tomtabacken (1237 ft.) and Ekbacken (11.75 ft.), about 25 m. respectively south-east and west of the town of Jonkoping at the southern extremity of Lake Vetter. Gentle forest-clad undulations, many small lakes and peat-mosses, are characteristic of the region; which, in fact, closely resembles the middle belt of the northern highland region. The Smaland highlands abut southward upon the plains of Skane, the last of the main orographical divisions, which coincides, roughly with the old province of Skane (Scania). Level plains, with rich open meadows and cultivated lands, the monotony of which is in some parts relieved by beech woods, are separated by slight ridges with a general direction from N.W. to S.E., such as Hallandsasen in the north-west, with an extreme elevation of 741 ft.

The hydrographical survey may now be completed. The Dal river, which enters the Gulf of Bothnia near Gefle, is formed of the union of eastern and western branches (Oster Dal, Rivers of Vester Dal) not far from the town of Falun. The eastern the South. branch drains various small lakes on the Norwegian frontier, and in its lower course passes through the beautiful Lake Siljan. The length of the whole river including the eastern as the main branch is 283 m. The Klar river (228 m.) rises as the Faeinund river in Faemundsjo, a large lake in Norway close west of the sources of the Dal. The Klar flows south into Lake Vener, which is drained to the Cattegat by the short Gota river, on which, not far below the lake, are the celebrated falls of Trollha:ttan. Lake Vetter drains eastward by the Motala to the Baltic, Lake Malar drains in the same direction by a short channel at Stockholm, the normal fall of which is so slight that the stream is sometimes reversed. The Smaland highlands are drained to the Baltic and Cattegat by numerous rivers of less importance. Excepting Finland no country is so full of lakes as Sweden. About 14,000 sq. m., nearly one-twelfth of the total area, are under water.

The coast of Sweden is not indented with so many or so deep fjords as that of Norway, nor do the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic and the Cattegat share in the peculiar Coast.. grandeur of the North Sea coast. All, however, have a common feature in the fringe of islands which, throughout nearly the entire length, shelters the coast of the mainland from the open sea. This " skerry-fence " (in Swedish, skeirg(Ird) is only interrupted for any considerable distance (in the case of Sweden) round the southern shore off the flat coast of Skane, between the towns of Varberg on the west and Ahus on the east. Between it and the mainland lies a connected series of navigable sounds of the greatest advantage to coastwise traffic, and also of no little importance as a natural defence. The skargard of the Cattegat, north of Varberg, is bald and rugged. The two largest islands are Orust and Tjorn, north of Gothenburg. Off the south-east coast the place of the skdrgard is in a measure taken by the long narrow island of Oland, but north of this the skrgard begins to widen, and the most considerable fjords are found, such as Bravik, which penetrates the land for 35 m. nearly up to the town of Norrkoping. The island belt is widest (some 45 m.) off the city of Stockholm, the approach to which from the sea is famous for its beauty. Farther north, a narrow sound (Glands Haf) intervening on the Swedish side, the vast Aland archipelago, belonging to Russia, extends across to the Finnish coast. The sk,rgard of the Gulf of Bothnia is less fully developed than that of either the Baltic or the Cattegat. The islands of the skargard as a whole are rugged and picturesque, though never lofty like many of those off the Norwegian coast. In the Baltic many are well wooded, but the majority are bare or heathclad, as are those of the Gulf of Bothnia. Of the large islands in the Baltic and Cattegat, besides Oland, only Gotland is Swedish.

Geology

The fundamental rocks of Sweden belong to the Azoic or pre-Cambrian formation, and consist of crystalline rocks. Three divisions are distinguished by some authors - the grey gneiss, the red iron gneiss and the granulite.

The grey gneiss predominates in the northern and eastern parts of the country, from Vesternorrland down to the province of Kalmar. The rock has a prevalent grey colour, and contains as characteristic minerals garnet and in some parts graphite.

The red iron gneiss prevails in western Sweden in the provinces of Vermland, Skaraborg, Elfsborg, and down to the province of Kristianstad. The formation is very uniform in its character, the gneiss having a red colour and containing small granules of magnetite, but, nevertheless, not a single iron mine belongs to this region. The red gneiss contains in many places beds or masses of hyperite.

The granulite, also called eurite and halleflinta, is the most important of the Pre-Cambrian formation, as it contains all the metalliferous deposits of Sweden. It prevails in the middle part of the country, in Kopparberg, , Vestmanland, Upsala and parts of Vermland. It occurs also in Ostergotland, Kalmar and Kronoberg. The rock is a very compact and fine-grained mixture of felspar, quartz and mica, often graduating to mica schist, quartzite and gneiss. With these are often associated limestones, dolomites and marbles containing serpentine (Kolmarden). The metalliferous deposits have generally the form of beds or layers between the strata of granulite and limestone. They are often highly contorted and dislocated.

The iron deposits occur in more or less fine-grained gneiss or granulite (Gellivara, Grangesberg, Norberg, Striberg), or separated from the granulite by masses of augitic and amphibolous minerals (gronskarn), as in Persberg and Nordmark. Sometimes they are surrounded by halleflinta and limestone, as at Dannemora, Langban, Pajsberg, and then carry manganiferous minerals. Argentiferous galena occurs at Sala in limestone, surrounded by granulite, and at Guldsmedshytta (province of Orebro) in dark halleflinta. Copper pyrites occur at Falun in mica-schists, surrounded by halleflinta. Zinc-blende occurs in large masses at Ammeberg, near the northern end of Lake Vetter. The cobalt ore consists of cobalt-glance (Tunaberg in the province of Soderrnanland) and of linneite (at Gladhammar, near Vestervik). The nickel ore of Sweden is magnetic pyrites, containing only a very small percentage of nickel, and generally occurs in diorite and greenstones. Besides the crystalline gneiss and halleflinta there are also sedimentary deposits which are believed to be of pre-Cambrian age. The most important of these are the Dala Sandstone (chiefly developed in Dalarne), the Almasakra and Visingso series (around Lake Vetter) and the Dalsland formation (near Lake Vener).

Large masses of granite are found in many parts of Sweden, in Kronoberg, Orebro, Goteborg, Stockholm, &c. Sometimes the granite graduates into gneiss; sometimes (as north of Stockholm) it encloses large angular pieces of gneiss. Intrusions of hyperite, gabbro (anorthite-gabbro at Radmanso in the province of Stockholm) and diorite are also abundant.

The Cambrian formation generally occurs along with the Ordovician, and consists of many divisions. The oldest is a sandstone, in which are found traces of worms, impressions of Medusae, and shells of Mickwitzia. The upper divisions consist of bituminous limestones, clay-slates, alum-slate, and contain numerous species of trilobites of the genera Paradoxides, Conocoryphe, Agnostus, Sphaerophthalmus, Peltura, &c. The Ordovician formation occurs in two distinct facies - the one shaley and containing graptolites; the other calcareous, with brachiopods, trilobites, &c. The most constant of the calcareous divisions is the Orthoceras limestone, a red or grey limestone with Megalaspis and Orthoceras. The subdivisions of the system may be grouped as follows: (I) Ceratopyge Limestone; (2) Lower Graptolite Shales and Orthoceras Limestone; (3) Middle Graptolite Shales, Chasmops and other Limestones, Trinucleus beds. The Cambrian and Ordovician strata occur in isolated patches in Vesterbotten, Jemtland (around Storsjo), Skaraborg, Elfsborg, Orebro, Ostergotland and Kristianstad. The whole of the island of Oland consists of these strata. The deposits are in most places very little disturbed and form horizontal or slightly inclined layers. South of Lake Vener they are capped by thick beds of eruptive diabase (called trapp). North of Lake Siljan (province of Kopparberg), however, they have been very much dislocated. The Silurian has in Sweden almost the same character as the Wenlock and Ludlow formation of England and consists partly of graptolite shales, partly of limestones and sandstones. The island of Gotland consists entirely of this formation, which occurs also in some parts of the province of Kristianstad. In the western and northern alpine part of Sweden, near the boundaries of Norway, the Silurian strata are covered by crystalline rocks, mica schists, quartzites, &c., of an enormous thickness, which have been brought into their present positions upon a thrust-plane. These rocks form the mass of the high mountain of Areskutan, &c.

The Triassic formation (Rhaetic division) occurs in the northern part of Malmohus. It consists partly of sandstones with impressions of plants (cycads, ferns, &c.), and partly of clay-beds with coal.

The Cretaceous formation occurs in the provinces of Malmohus and Kristianstad and a few small patches are found in the province of Blekinge. Only the higher divisions (Senonian and Danian) of the system are represented. The deposits are marls, sandstones and limestones, and were evidently formed near the shore-line.

The most recent deposits of Sweden date from the Glacial and Post-Glacial periods. At the beginning of the Glacial period the height of Scandinavia above the level of the sea was greater than at present, Sweden being then connected with Denmark and Germany and also across the middle of the Baltic with Russia. On the west the North Sea and Cattegat were also dry land. On the elevated parts of this large continent glaciers were formed, which, proceeding downwards to the lower levels, gave origin to large streams and rivers, the abundant deposits of which formed the diluvial sand and the diluvial clay. In most parts of Sweden these deposits were swept away when the ice advanced, but in Slane they often form still, as in northern Germany, very thick beds. At its maximum the inland ice not only covered Scandinavia but also passed over the present boundaries of Russia and Germany. When the climate became less severe the ice slowly receded, leaving its moraines, called in Sweden krosstenslera and krosstensgrus. Swedish geologists distinguish between bottengrus (bottom gravel, bottom moraine) and ordinary krossgrus (terminal and side moraine). The former generally consists of a hard and compact mass of rounded, scratched and sometimes polished stones firmly embedded in a powder of crushed rock. The latter is less compact and contains angular boulders, often of a considerable size, but no powder. Of later origin than the krosstensgrus is the rullstensgrus (gravel of rolled stones), which often forms narrow ranges of hills, many miles in length, called (Isar. During the disappearance of the great inland ice large masses of mud and sand were carried by the rivers and deposited in the sea. These deposits, known as glacial sand and glacial clay, cover most parts of Sweden south of the provinces of Kopparberg and Vermland, the more elevated portions of the provinces of Elfsborg and Kronoberg excepted. In the glacial clay shells of Yoldia arctica have been met with in many places (e.g. near Stockholm). At this epoch the North Sea and the Baltic were connected along the line of Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar and Malar. On the other side the White Sea was connected by Lakes Onega and Ladoga with the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic. In the depths of the Baltic and of Lakes Vener and Vetter there actually exist animals which belong to the arctic fauna and are remnants of the ancient ice-sea. The glacial clay consists generally of alternate darker and lighter coloured layers, which give it a striped appearance, for which reason it has often been called hvarfvig lera (striped clay). The glacial clay of the Silurian regions is generally rich in lime and is thus a marl of great fertility. The deposits of glacial sand and clay are found in the southern part of Sweden at a height ranging from 70 to 550 ft. above the level of the sea, but in the interior of the country at a height of 400 ft. above the sea.

On the coasts of the ancient ice-sea, in which the glacial clay was deposited, there were heaped-up masses of shells which belong to species still extant around Spitzbergen and Greenland. Most renowned among these shell-deposits are the Kapellbackarne near Uddevalla. With the melting of the great ice-sheet the climate became milder, and the southern part of Sweden was covered with shrubs and plants now found only in the northern and alpine parts of the country (Salix polaris, Dryas octopetala, Betula nana, &c.). The sea fauna also gradually changed, the arctic species migrating northward and being succeeded by the species existing on the coasts of Sweden. The Post-Glacial period now began. Sands (mosand) and clays (akerlera and fucuslera) continued to be deposited on the lower parts of the country. They are generally of insignificant thickness. In the shallow lakes and enclosed bays of the sea there began to be formed and still is in course of formation a deposit known by the name gyttja, characterized by the diatomaceous shells it contains. Sometimes the gyttja consists mainly of diatoms, and is then called bergmjiil. The gyttja of the lakes is generally covered over by peat of a later date. In many of the lakes of Sweden there is still in progress the formation of an iron ore, called sjomalm, ferric hydroxide, deposited in forms resembling peas, coins, &c., and used for the manufacture of iron. (P. LA.) Climate. - The climate of the Scandinavian peninsula as a whole is so far tempered by the warm Atlantic drift from the south-west as to be unique in comparison with other countries of so high a latitude. The mountains of the Keel are not so high as wholly to destroy this effect over Sweden, and the maritime influence of the Baltic system has also to be considered. Sweden thus occupies a climatic position between the purely coastal conditions of Norway and the purely continental conditions of Russia; and in some years the climate inclines to the one character, in others to the other. As a result of the wide latitudinal extent of the country there are also marked local variations to be contrasted. About one-seventh of the whole country is north of the Arctic Circle. The mean annual temperature ranges from 26.6° F. at Karesuando on the northern frontier to 44.8° at Gothenburg and 44.6° at Lund in the south (or 29.5° to 45° reduced to sea-level). Between these extremes the following actual average temperatures have been observed at certain stations from north' to south which are appropriately grouped for the purpose of comparison (heights above sea-level following each name) Jockmock (850 ft.), at the foot of the lake-chain on the Little Lule River-29.7°; and Haparanda (30 ft.), at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia-32.4°.

Stensele (1076 ft.), at the foot of the lake-chain on the Ume31;8°; and Umea. (39 ft.) at its mouth on the Gulf of Bothnia-34.9° Ostersund (1056 ft.) on Storsjo-35.2°; and Hernosand (49 ft.) on the Gulf of Bothnia-37.8°.

Karistad (180 ft.) at the head of Lake Vener-43.3°; Orebro (102 ft.) at the west of Lake Hjelmar-41 4°: and Stockholm (144 ft.) - 42 I°.

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FLORA AND FAUNA]

Boundaries of Provinces County (Linn) boundaries Capitals of Counties Railways Canals r6° St. = Stora, great; Slrt. = Sankt, Saint; C. = Canal; G. = Ganda, old; Ytt, = Ytter, outer; iR° Il° Bornholm B Longitude East 14° of Greenwich Map Scale, I:2,7:S0,000 English Miles ?o 60 at the south of lake Vetter-42.4°; and Vestervik (43 ft.) on the Baltic-43.2°.

But the local variations thus indicated are brought out more fully by a consideration of seasonal, and especially winter, temperatures. In Sweden July is generally the hottest month, the average temperature ranging from about 51° to 62°. In January, however, it ranges from 4° to 32° (February is generally a little colder). Moreover, there are two well-marked centres of very low winter temperature in the inland parts. The one is in the mountainous region of the south of Jemtland and the north of Dalarne, extending into Norway and thus lying in the middle of the peninsula about 62° N. Here the average temperature in January is 8.5°, whereas at Ostersund it is over 15°. The other and more strongly marked centre is in the far north, extending into Norway and Finland, where the average is 3.8°. The effect of the spinal mountain range in modifying oceanic conditions is thus illustrated. The same effect is well shown by the linguiform isotherms. In January, for example, the isotherm of 14°, after skirting the north coast of the Scandinavian peninsula, turns southward along the Keel, crossing the upper part of the district of the great northern lakes. It continues in this direction as far as the northern end of Lake Mjosen in Norway (61° N.), then turns sharply north-north-eastward, runs west of Lake Siljan and bends north-east to strike the Bothnian coast near Skelleftea. In July, on the other hand, the isotherms show an almost constant temperature all over the country, and the linguiform curves are wanting.

The relative length of the seasons shows contrasts similar to those of temperature. In the north spring begins in May, summer in the middle of June and autumn in the middle of August. In the south and south-west spring begins in March, summer in the middle of May and autumn in October. At Karesuando the last frost of spring occurs on an average on the 15th of June, and the first of autumn on the 27th of August, though night frosts may occur earlier; while at Stockholm 41 months are free of frost. Ice forms about October in the north, in November or December in the midlands and south, and breaks up in May or June and in April respectively. Ice covers the lakes for 100 to 115 days annually in the south, 150 in the midlands and 200 to 220 in the north. A local increase of the ice period naturally takes place in the upper parts of the Smaland highlands; and in the case of the great lakes of Norrland, the western have a rather shorter ice period than the eastern. As to the seas, the formation of ice on the west and south coasts is rare, but in the central and northern parts of the Baltic drift-ice and a fringe of solid ice along the coast arrests navigation from the end of December to the beginning of April. Navigation in the southern part of the Gulf of Bothnia is impeded from the end of November to the beginning of May, and in the north the gulf is covered with ice from November to the last half of May. Snow lies 47 days on an average on the plains of Skane, while in the north it lies from 140 to 190 days.

The northern summers find compensation for brevity in duration of sunshine and light. At Karesuando in 68° 26' N. and 1093 ft. above sea-level the sun is seen continuously above the horizon from the 26th of May to the 18th of July; at Haparanda for 23 hours, at Stockholm for 181 hours and at Lund for 171 hours at the summer solstice. Atmospheric refraction causes the sun to be visible for periods varying from south to north for a quarter to half an hour after it has actually sunk below the horizon. With the long twilight, perhaps the most exquisite period of a season which provides a succession of beautiful atmospheric effects, daylight lasts without interruption from the 16th to the 27th of June as far south as Hernosand (62° 38' N.).

The average annual rainfall for Sweden is 19.72 in., locally increasing on the whole from north to south, and reaching a maximum towards the south-west, precipitation on this coast greatly exceeding that on the south-east. Thus the average in the north of Norrland is 16.53 in., in the south of Norrland 22.6 in. At Boras, midway between the south end of Lake Vetter and the Cattegat, the average is 35.08 in., and 45.82 in. were registered in 1898. At Kalmar, however, on the Baltic opposite Oland, the average is 14.6 in. This is an extreme instance for the locality, but the minimum for all Sweden is found at Karesuando, with 12.32 in. The period of maximum is generally the latter half of summer, and the minimum in February and March; but the maximum occurs in October at coast stations in Skane and in the island of Gotland. The proportion of total precipitation which falls as snow ranges from 36% in the north to 9% in the south.

Flora

In the preceding physical description indications are given of the vast extent of forest in Sweden. The alpine treeless region occupies only the upper flanks of the spinal mountain-range above an elevation varying from 1800 ft. in the north to 3000 ft. in the south. It is belted by a zone of birch woods, with occasional mountain-ash and aspen, varying in width from about 20 m. in the north to a fraction of a mile in the south. Below this extends a great region of firwood covering the whole country north-east of Lake Vener and north of the Dal River. The fir (Pinus sylvestris) and pine (Pinus abies) are the predominating trees Spruce is common, and even predominates in the higher parts (between the great valleys and immediately below the birch-belt) in the north of Norrland. South of the southern limit indicated, in the midland district of the great lakes, the oak (Quercus pedunculata) appears as well as pine and fir; and, as much of this area is under cultivation, many other trees have been introduced, as the ash, maple, elm and lime. South of a line running, roughly, from the foot of Lake Vener to Kalmar on the Baltic coast the beech begins to appear, and in Sickle and the southern part of the Cattegat seaboard becomes predominant in the woods which break the wide cultivated places. Of wild flowering plants only a very few are endemic species (though more are endemic varieties); the bulk are immigrants after the last glacial epoch. Of these most are common to arctic lands, or occur as alpine plants in lower latitudes. The number of species decreases according to geographical distribution from south to north; thus while upwards of 1000 are found in Skane, there are only about 700 in the midlands, 500 in the lower parts of southern Norrland and less than 200 in the extreme north.

Fauna

The effects of the great latitudinal range of Sweden on its climate and flora has its parallel to a modified extent in the case of fauna. Only a few animals are common to the entire country, such as the hare (Lepus timidus) and the weasel; although certain others may be added if the high mountain region be left out of consideration, such as the squirrel, fox and various shrews. Among large animals, the common bear and the wolf have been greatly reduced in numbers even within later historic times. These and the lynx are now restricted to the solitary depths of the northern forests. Characteristic of the high mountainous region are the arctic fox, the glutton and the lemming, whose singular intermittent migrations to the lowlands have a considerable temporary influence on the distribution of beasts and birds of prey. There may also be mentioned the wild reindeer, which is rare, though large domesticated herds are kept by the Lapps. The elk, carefully preserved, haunts the lonely forests from the Arctic Circle even to the Smaland highlands. The roe-deer and red-deer are confined to the southern parts; though the first is found in the south of the midland plains. In these plains the fox is most abundant, and the badger and hedgehog are found. Martens and otters are to some extent hunted for their skins. A white winter fur is characteristic of several of the smaller animals, such as the hare, fox and weasel. The common and grey seals are met with in the neighbouring seas, and Phoca foetida is confined to the Baltic. Among birds by far' the greater proportion is migrant. Characteristic types common to the whole country are the teal, snipe, golden plover and wagtail. In the northern mountains the ptarmigan is common, and like other creatures assumes a white winter dress; ducks and other water-fowl frequent the lakes; the golden eagle, certain buzzards and owls are found, and among smaller birds the Lappland bunting (Plectrophanes laponicus) may be mentioned. In the coniferous forests the black grouse, hazel grouse and willow grouse, capercailzie and woodcock are the principal game birds; the crane is found in marshy clearings, birds of prey are numerous, and the Siberian jay in the north and the common jay in the south are often heard. But in the northern forests small birds are few, and even in summer these wilds give a strong general impression of lifelessness. In the midlands the partridge is fairly common, though not readily enduring the harder winters; and ring-doves and stock-doves occur. The lakes are the homes of a variety of aquatic birds. On the coasts a number of gulls and terns are found, also the eider-duck and the sea-eagle, which, however, is also distributed far over the land. The species of reptiles and amphibians are few and chiefly confined to the southern parts. There are three species of snake, including the viper; three of lizard; and eleven of batrachians. The rivers and lakes are generally well stocked with fish, such as salmon, trout of various species, gwyniad and vendace (especially in the north), pike, eels, perch of various species, turbot, bream and roach. The few sportsmen who have visited the higher parts of the great northern rivers have found excellent trout-fishing, with pike, perch, char and grayling, the char occurring in the uppermost parts of the rivers, and the grayling below them. The fisheries, both fresh-water and sea, are important, and fall for consideration as an industry. The herring, cod, flatfish, mackerel and sprat are taken in the seas, and also great numbers of a small herring called striimnaing. In the brackish waters of the east coast sea fish are found, together with pike, perch and other fresh-water forms. The crayfish is common in many places in central and southern Sweden. Pearls are sometimes found in the fresh-water mussel (Margaritana margaritifera); thus a tributary of the Lilla Lule River takes its name, Perle River, from the pearls found in it. Among the lower marine animals a few types of arctic origin are found, not only in the Baltic but even in Lakes Vener and Vetter, having remained, and in the case of the lakes survived the change to fresh water, after the disappearance of the connexion with the Arctic seas across the region of the great lakes, the Baltic, and north-east thereof. The molluscan fauna is fairly rich, and insect fauna much more so, even in the north. In summer in the uplands and the north the mosquito is sufficiently common to cause some little annoyance.

People

The population of Sweden in 1900 was 5,136,441. The census is taken in an unusual manner, being drawn up from the registries of the clergy according to parishes every ten years. Approximate returns are made by the clergy annually. The following table shows the distribution of population in that year through the lan or administrative districts. The first column shows the older divisions of the county into provinces, the names and boundaries of which differ in many cases from the lan. These names, as appears elsewhere in this article, remain in common use. The distribution of provinces and loin between the three main territorial divisions, Norrland (northern), Svealand (central) and Gdtaland (southern) is also indicated.

Old Provinces.	Lan.	Area sq. m.	Pop. 1900.
Norrland-
Lappland, Norrbotten .	Norrbotten .	40,867	134,769
Lappland, Vesterbotten .	Vesterbotten .	22 ,77 1	143,735
Angermanland, Medel- pad	Vesternorrland	9,8 55	232,311
Jemtland, Herjedal. .	Jemtland. .	19,6 75	111, 39 1
Helsingland, Gestrik- land. .. .. .	Gefleborg. .	7,615	238,048
Svealand-
Dalarne (Dalecarlia). .	Kopparberg .	11,524	217,708
Vermland	Vermland .	7,459	254,284
	Orebro .	3,511	194,924
Vestmanland 1	Vestmanland .	2,612	148,271
Nerike I	Sodermanland .	2,631	167,428
Sodermanland. .	Upsala.. .	2,051	123,863
Uppland	Stockholm dist.	3,015	172,852
	Stockholm, city	13	300,624
Gotaland-
Ostergotland	Ostergotland .	4,264	279,449
Vestergotland. .	Skaraborg. .	3, 2 73	241,069
Dal	Elfsborg .	4,912	279,514
Bohuslan	Goteborg och
Halland	Halland. .	i,90o	337,175
	Jonkoping	4	036
Smaland	Kronoberg	3,825 825	203159,, 124
	Kalmar. .	4,456	227,625
Blekinge	Blekinge .	1,164	146,302
Skane. .. ,	Kristianstad .	2,488	219,166
	Malmohus	1,864	409,304
O Gotland	Gotland'. .	1,219	52,781
land 2	-	-	-
	Total. .	172,8 75 3	5,136, 44 1

The population in 1908 was about 5,429,600. In 1751 it was 1, 802 ,373, and in 1865, 4,114,141. The average annual increase was 7.86 per thousand in the 19th century, reaching a maximum of 10.39 in 1841-1860, before the period of extensive emigration set in. Emigrants numbered 584,259 men and 424,566 women between 1851 and 1900, these figures helping to account for the considerable excess of women over men in the resident population, which in 1900 was as 1049 to 1000. The periods of greatest emigration were1868-1873and 1879-1893; the decline in later years is regarded as a favourable sign. The United States of America receive a large majority of the emigrants, and only a very small percentage returns. The Swedish people belong to the Scandinavian branch, but the population includes in the north about 20,000 Finns and 7000 Lapps. Other foreigners, however, are few, and the population is as a whole homogeneous. Immigrants in the period1851-1900numbered only 165,357.

Population is naturally denser in the south than in the north, and densest of all in the districts along the southern coasts; thus Malmohus Lan has about 220 persons per sq. m., Goteborg och Bohus Lan 174 and Blekinge 127. In Norrland as a whole, however, there are less than 9 persons per sq. m., in Norrbottens Lan less than 4, and in the uplands of this division and Vesterbottens Lan much less than this. However, the annual increase per thousand has been greater in Norrland than elsewhere. The annual excess of births over deaths is high, the proportion being as 1.68 to 1. The birth-rate between 1876 and 1900 averaged 28.51 per thousand; the death-rate between 1891 and 1900 was 16.36 per thousand, the lowest ever recorded over such a period for any European country. The lowest mortality is found in the districts about Lakes Vener and Vetter; the highest in Norbotten, the east midland districts, Skane, and Goteborg och Bohus Lan.

The percentage of illegitimacy is rather high (though it decreased ' The island and adjacent islets.

2 Island included in Kalmar Lan.

Including the four great lakes, Vener, Vetter, Malar Hjelmar, 35 16 sq. m.

[[[People]] during the second half of the nineteenth century); one cause of this may be found in the fact that the percentage of married persons is lower than in most European countries. As regards social evils generally, however, the low, though undoubtedly improving, standard of Sweden has had one of its chief reasons in the national intemperance. In 1 775 Gustavus III. made the sale of spirits (brcinnvin) a government monopoly, and the drinking habit was actually fostered. About 1830 this evil reached its highest development, and it is estimated that nine gallons of spirits were then consumed annually per head of the population. Mainly through the efforts of Peter Wieselgren, dean of Gothenburg (1800-1877), a strong temperance reform movement set in, and in 1855 important liquor laws were passed to restrict both production and sale of intoxicating liquors. The so-called Gothenburg System, providing for municipal control of the sale of intoxicants (see LIQuoR Laws), came into full operation in Gothenburg in 1865. The temperance movement has had its reward; the average of consumption of beer and spirits in Sweden is considerably lower than in Europe as a whole, though the effect of intoxicants is sometimes very apparent.

A marked difference of temperament is noticeable between the Swedes and Norwegians, the Swedes being the more lighthearted and vivacious. In some of the more remote parts of the country old customs are maintained and picturesque local costumes still worn, as in Dalecarlia (q.v.). The Lapps moreover retain their distinctive dress. In other cases early costumes are preserved only as a historical reminiscence at festivities. Although the characteristic celebrations at weddings or periodical festivals are, as elsewhere, decreasing in favour, there are certain occasions which are observed as holidays with much ceremony. Such are Christmas Day, and, not unnaturally in this northern land, Midsummer (June 23 and 24). The food of the people in the midlands and south is plentiful and good; in the remoter parts of the north an unfavourable summer is followed by a winter of scarcity or even famine; and in these parts meat is little used. Rye is extensively employed in the rural districts for the making of a hard bread in flat cakes (knackebriid). A prevalent custom among the better classes is that of beginning meals with a selection of such viands as anchovies, smoked salmon or slices of meat, of which a number of small dishes are provided (smorgasbord). These are taken with bread and butter and a glass of spirits. The more characteristic Swedish sports are naturally those of the winter. These include ski-running (skidlopning), skating and skate-sailing, tobogganing and sledging. The numerous inland waters and sheltered channels within the skargard have caused the high development of sailing as a summer sport, the Royal Swedish Yacht Club having its headquarters in Stockholm. Athletic sports are in high favour, especially such winter sports as snow-shoeing (ski), and, among ball games, lawn-tennis, and to some extent football, together with the game of park, peculiar to Gotland, are played.

Towns.-In the first half of the 19th century the percentage of urban population remained nearly stationary at a little less than 10. In 1880 it was 15.12, and in 1900 21.49. The towns with a population exceeding 15,000 in 1900 are Stockholm (300,624), Gothenburg (130,609), Malmo (60,857), Norrkoping (41,008), Gefle (29,522), Helsingborg (24,670), Karlskrona (23,955), Jonkoping (23,143), Upsala (22,855), Orebro (22,013), Lund (16,621), Boras (15,837), Halmstad (15,362).

Swedish towns, though rarely of quite modern foundation, generally appear so, for the use of brick in building is mainly of modern introduction, and is still by no means general, so that the partial or total destruction of a town by fire is now only less common than formerly. The rectangular method of laying out streets is general, and legislation has been directed against narrow streets and buildings of excessive height. The common material of the characteristic domestic architecture in rural districts is wood, except in Skane, where stone is available and has been used from early times. Some of the old wooden farm-buildings, especially in Dalarne, such as are preserved in Skansen Museum at Stockholm, are extremely picturesque. Another notable form in old wooden building is the belfry (klokstapel) of some village churches, examples of which are seen at Habo near Jonkoping and Hasjo in Jemtland on the northern railway. In the midlands and south fine castles and manor houses of the 16th and 17th centuries are fairly numerous, and there are a few remains of previous date. The fortified dwelling-house at Glimmingehus in the extreme south near Simrishamn is a good early example. Several of the southern ports have old citadels. That of Kalmar, on its island, is specially fine, while those at Vestervik (Stakkholm), Malrno, Falkenberg and Varberg may also be mentioned. Among country palaces or mansions that of Gripsholm is notable, overlooking Lake Malar, the shores of which are specially rich in historic sites and remains In ecclesiastical architecture Sweden possesses the noble cathedrals of Lund, Upsala and Linkoping; while that of Skara, near the southern shore of Lake Vener, dates originally from 1150, and that of Strengn: s on Lake Molar was consecrated in 1291. There is a remarkably perfect Romanesque church, with aisles, eastern apse and ambulatory, at Varnhem in Skaraborg Lan, and there are a few village churches of the same period in this district and in Skane. The monastic church at Vadstena on Lake Vetter is a beautiful example of Gothic of the 14th and 15th centuries. But the richest locality as regards ancient ecclesiastical architecture is the island of Gotland (q.v.).

Travel and Communications

As a resort for foreign travellers and tourists Sweden lacks the °,:markable popularity of Norway. The Gota canal route, however, is used by many; the uplands of Dalecarlia (Dalarne) are frequented; and the railway through the Jemtland highlands to Trondhjem gives access to a beautiful region, where numerous sanatoria are in favour with the Swedes themselves. The northern railway offers a land route to the Arctic coast of Norway. Along the southern coasts there are many watering-places. Marstrand near Gothenburg is one of the most fashionable; Stromstad, Lysekil and Varberg on the same coast, Ronneby on the Baltic, with its chalybeate springs, Visby the capital of Gotland, and several villages in the neighbourhood of Stockholm may also be noted. The headquarters of the Swedish Touring Club (Svenska Turistf oreningen) are in Stockholm, but its organization extends throughout the country, and is of special value to travellers in the far north.

The first railway in Sweden was opened for traffic in 1856, and the system has developed extensively; more so, in fact, in proportion to population, than in any other European country.

About 8000 m. of railway are open, but extensions are constantly in progress. About two-thirds are private lines and onethird government lines. The central administration of the government lines is in the hands of a board of railway directors, and there are local administrative bodies for each of five districts. A railway council, created in 1902, acts as an advisory body on large economical questions and the like. Private railways are controlled by the regulations of the board, while a joint traffic union has as its object the provision of uniformity of administration, tariff, &c. The government has made grants towards the construction of some of the private lines, and has in a few cases taken over such lines. The railways form a network over the country as far north as Gefle and the district about Lake Siljan. The government works the trunk lines from Stockholm to Malmo, to Gothenburg and to Christiania as far as the Norwegian frontier, and other important through routes in the south. The great northern line is also worked by the government. It runs north from Stockholm roughly parallel with the east coast, throwing off branches to the chief seaports, and also a branch from Bracke to Ostersund and Storlien, where it joins a line from Trondhjem in Norway. At Boden the main line joins a line originally built to connect the iron-mines of Gellivara with the port of Lulea; the system is continued past Gellivara to Narvik on the Ofoten Fjord in Norway, this being far north of the Arctic Circle, and the line the most northerly in the world. The gauge of all the government lines and about 66% of the private lines is 1 '435 metres (4 ft. 82 in.). Nearly all the lines are single. Passenger travelling is slow, but extremely comfortable. The principal connexions with the south are made across the sound from Malmo to Copenhagen, and from Trelleborg to Sassnitz in Germany.

The extensive system of natural waterways, especially in central Sweden, has been utilized to the full in the development of internal navigation, just as the calm waters within the skargard afford opportunity for safe and economical coastwise, traffic. The earliest construction of canals dates from the 15th century, the patriot Engelbrekt and King Gustavus Vasa both foreseeing its importance. The theories of construction remained rudimentary until early in the 19th century, when the Gota (q.v.) canal was opened. The total length of the canalized water-system of Sweden is a little over 700 m., though wholly artificial waterways amount only to 115 m. out of this total. A large local traffic is carried on by steam launches on the lakes during the season of open navigation; and vessels have even been introduced on some of the lakes and rivers of the far north, principally in connexion with the timber trade. Posting, which is of importance only in the highland districts and the valley roads of Norrland, is carried on by posting-stations (skjutsstation) under government regulations; similar regulations apply when, as in the upper valleys of the great northern rivers, rowing boats on the lakes form the only means of travel. The condition of the high roads is fair as a whole, and has been much improved by increased state grants towards their upkeep; but in Norrland they are naturally not of the best class. The postal and telegraph system is efficacious, and the telephone service, maintained partly by the state and partly by companies, is very fully developed. About twenty telephones are in use per thousand of population, and a system of trunk-lines between the important towns has been established since 1889.

Agriculture

Of the total land area of Sweden only about is arable or meadow land, but the percentage varies greatly in different parts, as will be understood from a recollection of the main physical divisions. Thus in Skane nearly 60% of the land is under cultivation; in the midlands about 30%; in the north from 4.5% in xXVi.

southern Norrland to 3% in northern Norrland. Almost exactly half the total area is under forest, its proportion ranging from 25% in Skane to upwards of 7 0% in the inland parts of Svealand and in the south of Norrland. Land which is neither cultivable nor under forest (marsh land or, in the northern mountainous districts, land above the upper limit of the forests) amounts to 61% in the far north and 36% in the Smaland highlands, but only to 15% in the central plains and in Skane. In the more highly cultivated districts_of the south reclamation of such lands is constantly proceeding. Agriculture and cattle-breeding employ over one-half the whole population. The average size of farms is 25 acres of cultivated land; only 1% exceeds 250 acres, whereas 23% are of 5 acres or less. The greater part of the land has always been held by small independent farmers (only about 15% of the farms are worked by tenants), but until late in the 18th century a curious method of parcelling the land resulted in each man's property consisting of a number of detached plots or strips, the divisions often becoming so minute that dissension was inevitable. Early in the 19th century various enactments made it possible for each property to become a coherent whole. A legal parcelling (lager skifte) was introduced in 1827 and slowly carried out in the face of considerable local opposition; indeed, in the island of Gotland the system could not be enforced until 1870-1880. Roughly about 48.5% of the total cultivated area is under cereals, 33.8 under fodder plants, 5.8 under root-crops, and 11. 8 fallow, this last showing a steady decrease. Oats, rye, barley, mixed grain and wheat are the grain-crops in order of importance. During the 19th century the percentage under wheat showed a general tendency to increase; that under oats increased much in the later decades as livestock farming became common, rye maintained a steady proportion, but barley, formerly the principal grain-crop, decreased greatly. This last is the staple crop in Norrland, becoming the only grain-crop in the extreme north; in the richer agricultural lands of the midlands and south rye is predominant in the east, oats in the west. The high agricultural development of the plains of Skane appears from the fact that although that province occupies only one-fortieth of the total area of Sweden, it produces 30% of the entire wheat crop, 33% of the barley, 18% of the rye and 13% of the oats. A system of rotation (cereal, roots, grass) is commonly followed, each division of land lying fallow one year as a rule; not more than two ripe grain-crops are commonly taken consecutively. Potatoes occupy 4.4% of the total area, and other root-crops 1.4%. These include the sugar-beet, the profitable growing of which is confined to Skane and the islands of Oland and Gotland. The sugar industry, however, is very important. Orchards and gardens occupy about i % of the cultivated area. Fruit-trees are grown, mainly in the south and midlands; northward (as far as Hernosand) they flourish only in sheltered spots on the coast. Between 1850 and 1900 the total head of livestock increased from 4,500,000 to 5,263,000, and the great advance of cattle-farming is evident from the following proportions. Whereas in1870-1875imported cattle and cattlefarming produce exceeded exports as to 7, in 1900 the value of exports was nearly double that of imports; and it may be added that whereas as late as1870-1880the exports of agricultural produce exceeded imports in value, in1896-1900they were less than onetenth. The principal breeds of cattle are the alpine in Norrland, and Ayrshire, short-horn, and red-and-white Swedish in the midlands and south. The Gotland, an old native light yellow breed, survives in the island of Gotland. Oxen, formerly the principal draught animals, have been replaced by horses. Cattle, especially cows, and pigs form the bulk of the livestock, but sheep and goats have greatly decreased in numbers. The Lapps own upwards of 230000 head of reindeer. Dairy-farming is profitable, England and Denmark being the principal foreign consumers of produce, and the industry is carefully fostered by the government. A board of agriculture had been in operation for many years when in 1900 a separate department of agriculture was formed. There are one or more agricultural societies in each lan, and there are various state educational establishments in agriculture, such as the agricultural high schools at Ultuna near Upsala, and at Alnarp near Lund in Skane, an important agricultural centre, with dairy schools and other branch establishments. Finally, there are numerous horticultural societies, large nurseries and gardening schools at Stockholm, Alnarp and elsewhere, and botanical gardens attached to the universities of Lund and Upsala.

Forests and Forestry

Of the forests about one-third are public; the majority of these belong to the Crown, while a small proportion belongs to hundreds and parishes. The remainder is in private hands. The public forests are administered by the office of Crown lands through a forest service, which employs a large staff of forestmasters and rangers. The private forests are protected from abuse chiefly by the important legislation of 1903, which prescribes penalties for excessive lumbering and any action liable to endanger the regrowth of wood. The administration of the law devolves upon local forest conservancy boards. In the great fir forests of the north the limit set in respect of cutting down living trees for sawing and export is a diameter of the trunk, without bark, of 84 in. at 152 ft. from the base. Members of the forest service undergo a preliminary course of instruction at a school of forestry, and a further course at the Institute of Forestry, Stockholm, which dates from 1828. There are very numerous sawmills, using waterpower, steam and electricity; they are situated chiefly in the coast districts of the Gulf of Bothnia, from Gefle northwards, especially in the neighbourhood of Sundsvall and along the Angerman River, and in the neighbourhood of all the ports as far north as Lulea and Haparanda. There are also upland mills in Dalarne and Vermland, and a considerable number in the neighbourhood of Gothenburg. The wood-pulp industry centres in the districts west and north of Lake Vener and south of Lake Vetter. In the north vast quantities of timber are floated down the great rivers, and the lesser streams are used as floating-ways by the provision of flumes and dams. The millowners either own forests, or lease the right of cutting, or buy the timber when cut, in the Crown or private forests. Among the special articles exported may be mentioned railway-sleepers, pitprops, and wood-pulp.

Fisheries

The sea-fisheries, which are prosecuted principally in the calm waters within the skargard, are a variable source of wealth. For example, in 1894 nearly 2,000,000 cwt. of fresh fish (principally herring) were exported, but in subsequent years the fisheries were much less prolific; in 1900 only 80,000 cwt. were exported, and in 1903 less than 150,000 cwt. As a rule each crew jointly owns its boat and tackle. The fishery is of ancient importance; at the old towns of Falsterbo and SkanOr, south of Malmo, thousands of fishermen were employed until the harbours became choked in 1631, and the fish were a valuable item in the Hanseatic commerce. There are rich salmon-fisheries in the lower parts of the great northern rivers, especially the Tome, Kalix, Lule, Angerman and Indal; in the Dal, the Klar and GOta, and several of the lesser rivers of the south. In the majority of rivers no special necessity has been found to protect the fishing. As a general rule the owner of the shore owns the riverfishing. The chief inspector of fisheries is a member of the board of agriculture.

Mining

The iron-mining industry is of high importance, the output of iron ore forming by far the largest item in the total output of ores and minerals. Thus in 1902 the total output was nearly 32 million tons, of which 2,850,000 tons were iron ore. The output of iron ore has greatly increased; in1870-1880it averaged annually little more than one-quarter of the amount in 1902. The deposits of iron ore are confined almost wholly to the extreme north of Norrland, and to a midland zone extending from the south of the Gulf of Bothnia to a point north of Lake Vener, which includes the Dannemora ore fields in the eastern part. In Norrland the deposits at Gellivara have long been worked, with the assistance of a railway to the Bothnian port of Lulea, but in 1903 the northern railway was completed across the Norwegian frontier to Narvik on Ofoten Fjord, and the vast deposits at the hills of Kirunavara and Luossavara began to be worked. These deposits alone are estimated to have an extent exceeding one-quarter of the total ore fields worked in the country. The deposits are generally in pockets, and the thickness of the beds ranges from 100 to nearly 500 ft. at Kirunavara, up to 230 ft. at Gellivara, and in the midland fields generally from 40 to 100 ft., although at the great field of Grangesberg, in Kopparberg and Orebro Lan, a thickness of nearly 300 ft. is found. Nearly all the ore is magnetite, and in the midlands it is almost wholly free of phosphorus. The percentage of iron in the ore is high, as much as 66% in the Kirunavara-Luossavara ore; and little less in that of Grangesberg; this far exceeds other European ores, though it is equalled by some in America. Sweden possesses little coal, and pig-iron is produced with charcoal only; its quality is excellent, but Sweden's proportion to the world's produce is hardly more than I %, whereas in the 17th and 18th centuries, before the use of coal elsewhere, it was much greater. As an industry, however, the production both of pig, iron and of wrought iron and steel is increasingly prosperous. The ironworks and blast-furnaces are almost wholly in the midland districts. Copper has been mined at Falun since the 14th century; it is also produced at Atvidaberg in Ostergotland. The production, however, has greatly decreased. A little gold and silver are extracted at Falun, and the silver mines at Sala in Vestmanlands Lan have been worked at least since the 16th century, but here again the output has decreased. Lead is produced at Sala and Kafveltorp, and zinc ore at Ammeberg. Coal is found in small beds in Skane, east and north of Helsingborg, at Billesholm, Bjuf and HOganas; but the amount raised, although increasing, is only some 300,000 tons annually. Mining administration is in the charge of a special bureau of the board of trade. The Iron Institute (Jdrnkontoret) was established in 1748 as a financial institution, in which the chief iron-mining companies have shares, for the advancement of advantageous loans and the promotion of the industry generally. It maintains a special education and investigation fund. There are schools of mining at Stockholm (the higher school), Falun and Filipstad in Vermland.

Manufactures

If the total value of the output of the manufacturing industries in Sweden be taken as 100, the following are the most important of those industries, according to the approximate percentage of each to the whole: iron industries 18.3, and mechanical works 4; saw-milling 12.5 and wood-pulp works 2.5; cloth-factories and spinning-mills 8; flour-mills 6.4; sugar-refining and beet-sugar works 6; spirit distilling and manufacture 4.7, and brewing 2.6; dairy products 4.4; papermaking 1.6; leaving a remainder of 29% for other industries. The total annual value of the output is about £72,000,000. The great mechanical works are found at or near Malmo, Stockholm, JOnkoping, Trollhattan, Motala on Lake Vetter, Lund, Gothenburg, Karlstad, Falun and Eskilstuna, which is especially noted for its cutlery. A few other establishments including both mechanical workshops and ore-extraction works may be mentioned: Domnarfvet, on the Dal River, near Falun; Sandviken, near Gefle; and Bofors in Orebro Lan. The principal centres of the textile industry are Norrkoping in Ostergotland and Boras in Elfsborg Lan, where there are weaving schools; and the industry is spread over Elfsborg Lan and the vicinity of Gothenburg. There is a linen industry in Smaland and in the south of Norrland. One of the most notable special industries of Sweden is match-making, for which there are large works at Jonkoping, Tidaholm in Skaraborg Lan and in the neighbourhood of Kalmar. The centre of the beetsugar industry is Skane, but it is also carried on in the island of Gotland; its great access of prosperity is chiefly owing to the existence of a protective duty on imported sugar. Spirit distillation centres in Kristianstad Lan. Among other industries may be mentioned the earthenware works at Hoganas at the north end of the Sound, the cement works of Lomma in this vicinity, and the pottery works of Rorstrand in, and Gustafsberg near, Stockholm; where beautiful ware is produced. Stone is worked chiefly in Goteborg och Bohus and Blekinge Lan.

Commerce

Exports approach £30,000,000 and imports £40,000,000 in average annual value.

Of the total exports that of timber, wrought and unwrought, represents 50%; the other principal exports with approximate percentage are: iron and steel 13.5, iron ore 3.6, machinery and implements 3.2, and other iron and steel goods 2.7; butter Io; paper 3.4; carpentry work 3; matches 2.3. The principal imports with percentage to the whole are: coal and coke 15, grain 8, coffee 4.6, machinery 4, wool, yarn, thread, cotton and woollen goods 9'4; hides and skins 2.5. Oil and fish are also important. The principal countries trading with Sweden are the United Kingdom (exports from Sweden 38.2%, imports to Sweden 25.7), Germany (exports 16%, imports 39) and Denmark (exports 14%, imports 12.5). Other countries with which Sweden has mainly an export trade are France, the Netherlands and Norway. With Russia on the other hand the trade is principally import. In the case of the United Kingdom, Germany, Denmark and Norway, the transit trade forms an important proportion of the whole. The coal imported (which forms over 90% of the whole consumed) comes mainly from Great Britain; while most of the colonial produce, such as coffee and tobacco, comes through Germany. The match and paper export trade is principally with the United Kingdom. Between 1865 and 1888 Sweden employed a modified system of free trade, but various enactments in 1888 and 1892 reintroduced methods of protection. Shipping. - The total number of vessels in the Swedish commercial fleet is about 3000 of 650,000 tons register; of which steamers represent about 380,000 tons. On an average about 73,000 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 17,500,000, enter and clear the ports. The principal ports of register are Gothenburg, Stockholm, Helsingborg and Gefle, in order; though the principal commercial ports are Stockholm; Gothenburg and Malmo. Owing to the natural configuration of the coast and the skargard excellent natural harbours are almost without number. Artificial harbours are consequently few, but those at Helsingborg, Malmo, Halmstad, Ystad and Kalmar may be mentioned. The principal docks are at Gothenburg, Stockholm, Malmo, Oskarshamn and Norrkoping, besides the naval docks at Karlskrona; and the principal ports where large vessels can be accommodated on slips are Malmo, Gothenburg, Stockholm, Karlskrona and Gefle. A list of the chief ports may be conveniently classified. On the west coast north of Gothenburg are Stromstad, near the Norwegian frontier, and Uddevalla, on a deep inlet behind the island of Orust, 35 m. from the open Cattegat. South of Gothenburg on the open coast are Varberg and Halmstad; and on the Sound are the three large ports of Helsingborg, Landskrona and Malmo. Passing to the Baltic, Trelleborg and Ystad lie on the southernmost coast of the country, and Simrishamn, !thus the outport of Kristianstad, Karlshamn, Ronneby and Karlskrona on the wide Hano Bay. On Kalmar Sound are Kalmar and Oskarshamn; and continuing northward, Vestervik, Soderkoping at the head of the inlet Slatbaken, Norrkoping, similarly situated on Braviken, and Stockholm, far within the skargard. On the Bothnian coast there is a port at or near the mouth of each great river, where the timber floated down from the interior is both worked and exported. The chief ports here, from south to north, are: Gefle, SOderhamn, Hudiksvall, Sundsvall, Hernosand, Ornskoldsvik, Umea, Skelleftea, Pita. and Lulea, the last exporting the ore from the northern iron-mines.

Banks

The first Swedish bank, called the Palmstruch bank after its founder, Johan Palmstruch, was incorporated in 1656. It began to issue notes in 1661. It was shortly afterwards bankrupt, and in 1668 the Bank of Sweden (Sveriges Riksbank) succeeded it. This is managed by a board of seven delegates, the chairman being elected by the government, while the Riksdag (parliament) elects the remainder. It began to issue notes in 1701. This ability was shared by private banks with solidary responsibility until 1903, but under a reform of 1897 the riksbank took over, from 1904, the whole right of issuing paper currency, which is in wide use. The capital of the riksbank is 50,000,000 kronor (£2,250,000). The other banks are joint-stock banks and savings-banks, of which the first was opened at Gothenburg in 1820. The post office savings bank was opened in 1884.

Coinage

The counting unit in the Swedish coinage is the krona, equal to i i shilling. The monetary unit is io kronor gold, and gold pieces, not widely met with in circulation, are struck of 20, 10 and 5 kronor. The krona equals Ioo Ore. Silver pieces of 2 and i krona, 50, 25 and 10 Ore are struck, and bronze pieces of 5, 2, 'and i ore. Sweden, Norway and Denmark have the same monetary system.

Finance

In the budget for 1910 revenue and expenditure were estimated at £12,674,300. The principal sources of income in the ordinary revenue are railways, forests, telegraphs and rent from Crown lands; and those in the revenue voted (bevillningar), which is about seven-eighths of the whole, customs, the taxes on spirits and beetsugar, and income from the post office. The departments to which the bulk of expenditure is devoted are those of the army, the interior, the navy and education. A large proportion of the army expenditure was formerly defrayed by a system of military tenure on certain lands. Land-taxes, however, were finally abolished in 1904, and their place was taken by an increased taxation on real estate, revised triennially, and by an income tax arranged on a sliding scale, up to 4% of the income (9.6 pence in the £), settled according to individual declaration. The national debt was practically nil until c. 1855, and the debt contracted thereafter owes its existence almost wholly to railway construction. It increased from about £2,300,000 in 1860 to £6,400,000 in 1870 and £18,600,000 in 1900. In 1904 it exceeded £19,000,000. The greater proportion of communal revenue comes from income and property tax, the sale of spirits under the Gothenburg System, and contributions from the treasury. Primary education, poor relief, and Church purposes form the principal items of expenditure.

Constitution and Government

Sweden is a limited monarchy, the constitution resting primarily on a law (regerings-formen) of the 6th of June 1809. The king is irresponsible, and executive power is vested in him alone. All his resolutions, however, must be taken in the presence of the cabinet (statsrad) . The cabinet councillors are appointed by the king and are responsible to the parliament (Riksdag) . They are eleven in number, one being prime minister, two others consultative ministers, and the remaining eight heads of the departments of administration, which are justice, foreign affairs, land defence, naval defence, home affairs, finance, public works, agriculture. The councillors must be of Swedish birth and adherents of the Lutheran confession. The appointment of the majority of public officials is vested in the king, who can himself dismiss cabinet ministers and certain others, whereas in most cases a judicial inquiry is necessary before dismissal. The king shares legislative powers with the Riksdag, (parliament or diet), possessing the rights of initiation and absolute veto. He has also, in certain administrative and economic matters, a special legislative right.

The Riksdag consists of two chambers. The members of the first chamber are elected by the landsthing, or representative bodies of the lan, and by the municipal councils of some of the larger towns. They number 150, and are distributed among the constituencies in proportion to population; the distribution being revised every tenth year. Eligibility necessitates Swedish birth, an age of at least 35 years, and the possession, at the time of election and for three years previously, either of real property to the value of 80,000 kronor (£4400), or an annual income on which taxes have been paid of 4000 kronor (£220). Members are unpaid. The members of the second chamber number 230, of whom 150 are elected from rural constituencies and 80 from towns. The members receive a salary of 1200 kronor (£66), and are elected for a period of three years by electors, or directly, according to the resolution of the electoral district. If a member retires during that period, or if the chamber is dissolved, succeeding members are elected for the remainder of the three years, and thus the house is wholly renewed at regular intervals, which is not the case with the first house. The franchise was for long extremely limited in comparison with other countries, but in 1907 universal manhood suffrage was introduced, after protracted dissension and negotiation between the two houses. Eligibility to the lower house necessitates possession of the elective franchise, an age of at least 25 years, and residence within the constituency. Both chambers have in theory equal power. Before bills are discussed they may be prepared by committees, which play an important part in the work of the house. The agreement of both chambers is necessary before a bill becomes law, but when they differ on budget questions the matter is settled by a common vote of both, which arrangement gives the second chamber a certain advantage from the greater number of its members. By revisers elected annually the Riksdag controls the finances of the kingdom, and by an official (justitieombudsman) elected in the same way the administration of justice is controlled; he can indict any functionary of the state who has abused his power. The bank of the kingdom is superintended by trustees elected by the Riksdag, and in the same way the public debt is administered through an office (riksgaldskontoret), whose head is appointed by the Riksdag.

Local Government

For the purposes of local government Sweden is divided into 25 administrative districts called lan, a list of which is given in the paragraph dealing with population. The elected representative body in each is the landsthing, which deliberates on the affairs of the lan and has a right to levy taxes. The chief official of the lan is the landshi fding, under whom are secretarial and fiscal departments. Privileged towns, receiving their privileges from the government (not necessarily on the basis of population), are under a mayor (borgmastare) and aldermen (radman), the aldermen being elected by the citizens, while the mayor is appointed by the government from the first three aldermen on the poll, is paid, and holds office for life. Gothenburg has two mayors, and the city of Stockholm (q.v.), a lan in itself, has a special form of government. The major rural divisions are the fOgderier, under bailiffs, a subdivision of which is the lansmansdistrikt under a lansman. Justice. - Justice is administered by tribunals of three instances.

(1) There are 119 rural judicial districts (domsagor), which may be subdivided into judicial divisions (tingslag). Each tingslag has a court (hciradsratt), consisting of a judge and twelve unpaid assessors (namndeman), of whom seven form a quorum, elected by the people. These, if unanimously of a different opinion to the judge, can outvote him. The town-courts in the privileged towns are called radstufvuratter, and consist of the mayor and at least two aldermen.

(2) There are three higher courts (hofratter), in Stockholm, J&nkiiping and Kristianstad. (3) The Supreme Court (HOgsta Domstolen) passes sentences in the name of the king, who is nominally the highest judicial authority. The court has a membership of 18 justices (justitierad), two of whom are present in the council of state when law questions are to be settled; while the body also gives opinion upon all proposed changes of law.

Army and Navy. - General military service is enforced. Every Swedish man belongs to the conscripts (varnpligtige) between the age of 21 and 40, during which time he serves eight years in the first levy, four in the second, and eight in the reserves. The conscripts were formerly trained for 90 days, but according to the law of 1901, the conscript is bound to serve in time of peace - in the infantry, position artillery, fortress artillery, fortress engineers, and the army service corps a total of 240 days; and in the cavalry, field artillery, field engineers, and field telegraph corps a total of 365 days. The permanent cadres number about 22,000, and about 85,000 men are annually trained as recruits or recalled for further training. The organization of the army in time of peace is as follows: 82 battalions of infantr y (28 regiments), 50 squadrons of cavalry, 71 field artillery and 7 position artillery batteries, Io fortress artillery, 16 engineer, and 18 army service corps companies. There are six divisions, quartered at Helsingborg, Linkoping, Skofde, Stockholm (two), and Hernosand; in addition to the Gotland troops quartered at Visby. A division in time of war would probably consist of 2 battalions of infantry (4 regiments, 12 battalions), with 4 squadrons of cavalry, 1 artillery regiment, I company of engineers, &c. A cavalry division would consist of 2 brigades of 8 squadrons each, and 1 brigade of horse artillery. It is estimated that 500,000 n:en are available for service in the various capacities in case of war. There are fortresses at Stockholm (Vaxholm and Oscar-Fredriksborg), Boden on the northern railway near the Russian frontier, Karlsborg on Lake Vetter, and Karlskrona; and there are forts at Gothenburg and on Gotland. The reforms of 1901 abolished the indelta, a body including both infantry and cavalry who lived in various parts of the country, in some cases having their houses provided for them. This peculiar system of military tenure (indelningsverket) originated in the 17th century, when certain landowners were exempt from other military obligations if they provided and maintained armed men. The navy is small, including 1 i ironclads of 3100 to 3650 tons. The personnel consists of a cadre, reserve and about 17,000 conscripts. It also includes two coast-artillery regiments, with headquarters at Vaxholm and Karlskrona. The principal naval station is Karlskrona, and there is another at Stockholm.

[HISTORY

Religion

More than 99% of the total population belong to the Swedish Lutheran Church, of which the king is the supreme head. Sweden is divided into 12 dioceses and 186 deaneries, the head of the diocese of Upsala being archbishop. The parish is an important unit in secular as well as ecclesiastical connexions. The rector presides over the local school board, which is appointed by the church assembly (kyrkostdmman), and thus an intimate relation between the church and education has long been maintained. A peculiar duty of the clergy is found in the husfOrhOr or meetings designed to enable the priest to test and develop the religious knowledge of his parishioners by methods of catechism. It was formerly enjoined upon the clergy to visit parishioners for this purpose, and the system is still maintained in the form of meetings, which have in some cases, however, acquired a character mainly devotional. The parishes number 2556, but one living may include more than one parish. In the sparsely inhabited districts of the north the parish is sometimes of enormous extent, thus that of Gellivara has an area of about 6500 sq. m. In such cases the priest often makes protracted journeys from farm to farm through his parish, and on certain occasions the congregation at his church will include many, both Swedes and Lapps, who have travelled perhaps for several days in order to be present. Dissenters are bound to contribute to the maintenance of the Swedish Church, in consideration of the secular duties of the priests.

Education

The connexion between the church and education is so close that the control of both is vested in a single department of the government. Primary education is carried on in common schools of different grades, under both local and state inspection, the parish being the school district. Seminaries are maintained for common school teachers, with a four years' course. At Haparanda and Mattisudden in Norbotten there are special institutions for teachers for the Finnish and Lapp population respectively. Wide attention was attracted to Swedish educational methods principally by the introduction of the system of Sloyd (slojd), initiated at the Naas seminary near Gothenburg, and concerned with the teaching of manual occupations, both for boys and for girls. The higher education of the people is provided by people's high schools in the rural districts, especially for the peasantry, maintained by the county councils, agricultural societies and the state, and providing a two years' course both in general education and in special practical subjects according to local needs. The men's course is held in winter; and a women's course, in some instances, in summer. The workmen's institutes in the towns have a similar object. A system of university extension has been developed on the English pattern, summer courses being held at Upsala and Lund. In connexion with the army reform of 1901 a system of army high schools was proposed for conscripts while serving. Technical education is provided in higher schools at Stockholm, Gothenburg and certain other large industrial centres; and in lower schools distributed throughout the country, in which special attention is given to the prevailing local industries. The agricultural and forestry schools have been mentioned in the paragraphs on these subjects. Public schools for boys are provided by the state, each bishop being superintendent (eforus) of those in his diocese. In the three lowest classes (out of a total of nine) a single system of instruction is practised; thereafter there are classical and scientific sides. Greek is taught only in a section of the upper classical classes. Of modern languages, German is taught throughout; English in all classes of the scientific side, and the upper classical classes. Much attention is paid to singing, drill and gymnastics. The school terms together occupy 341 weeks in the year. At the schools examinations are held for entrance to the universities and certain higher special schools. Owing to the high development of state public schools, private schools for boys are few; but higher schools for girls are all private, excepting the higher seminary for teachers and the state normal school at Stockholm. The state universities are at Upsala and Lund, and with these ranks the Caroline Medical Institution at Stockholm. There are universities (founded by private individual benefactions, but under state control) at Stockholm and Gothenburg. The faculties at Upsala and Lund are theology, law, medicine and philosophy (including both art and science). The courses are long, ranging from six to nine years; and the degrees are those of candidate, licentiate and doctor. The students, who are distinguished by their white caps, are divided for social purposes into " nations " (landskap) of ancient origin, based upon the distinctions between natives of different parts.

Scientific Institutions

Among the scientific and literary societies are to be noted the Swedish Academy, consisting of 18 members, which was instituted in 1786 by Gustavus III., after the pattern of the Academie Frangaise, for the cultivation of the Swedish language and literature; and the Academy of Science, founded in 1739 by Linnaeus and others for the promotion of the natural sciences. The first distributes one and the second two of the prizes of the Nobel Foundation. A fourth prize is distributed by the Caroline Institution at Stockholm. There may be mentioned further the Royal Academies of Literature, History and Antiquities (1786), of Agriculture (1811), of Arts (1735) and of Music (1771). The principal museums and art and other collections are in Stockholm, Upsala and Lund, and Gothenburg. The Royal Library in the Humlegard Park at Stockholm, and the university libraries at Upsala and Lund are entitled to receive a copy of every publication printed in the kingdom. Certain of the large towns have excellent public libraries, and parish libraries are widely distributed.

See Sweden, its People and its Industry, a government publication (ed. G. Sundbarg) dealing with the land and people in every aspect (Eng. vers., Stockholm, 1904); Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik (Stockholm, 1857 seq.); Statistisk Tidskrift, periodically from 1862; Publications (year-book, guides, &c.) of the Svenska Turistforeningen (Swedish Touring Club) Stockholm; periodical Bulletin of the Geological Institute of Upsala University, in which may be noted K. Ahlenius, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Seenkettenregion in SchwedischLappland, No. v. (1900); Also Dahlman, Inledning til Sveriges physikalska geografi (Stockholm, 1857); Statistiskt Lexicon ofrer Sverige (Stockholm, 1859-1870); M. Hojer, Konungariket Sverige (Stockholm, 1875-1883); C. Almqvist, La Suede, ses progres sociaux (Stockholm, 1879); P. B. Du Chaillu, The Land of the Midnight Sun (London, 1881); C. M. Rosenberg, Geografiskt-statistiskt handlexicon ofrer Sverige (Stockholm, 1882-1883); W. W. Thomas, Sweden and the Swedes (Chicago and New York, 1891); Healey, Educational Systems of Sweden, Norway and Denmark (London, 1893); Nystrom, Handbok i Sveriges geografi (Stockholm, 1895), and Sveriges rike (Stockholm, 1902); G. Andersson, Geschichte der Vegetation Schwedens (Leipzig, 1896); K. Ahlenius, Sverige, geografisk, topografisk, statistisk beskrifning (Stockholm); and for geology, A. G. Nathorst, Sveriges geologi (Stockholm). For more detailed accounts of the various districts see the publications of the Sveriges Geologiska Undersakning, and also the volumes of the Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar. (0. J. R. H.) History Remains dating from the Stone Age are found scattered over the southern half of Sweden, but it is only along the south coast and in the districts bordering on the Cattegat that they occur in any considerable quantity. The antiquities of the Bronze Age are much more widely distributed and reach as far as the north of Helsingland. It is evident that the country must at this time have been fairly populous. So far as can be judged from the human remains found the population in general in both the Stone and Bronze Ages seems to have been similar in type to that of the present day, and there is no clear evidence for the advent of a new race. The Iron Age probably began in the south of Sweden at any rate some three or four centuries before the beginning of the Christian era. (See further Scandi Navian Civilization.) The first historical notice relating to Sweden is contained in Tacitus, Germania, cap. 44. This book was probably published in A.D. 98 or 99 and in the passage mentioned we find the name of the chief people of the peninsula, the Early Swedes proper, Suiones (0. N. Sviar, Swed. Races and Svear, A. S. Son), who eventually gave their Divisions. we name to the whole country. According to Tacitus they were governed by a king whose power was absolute and comprehensive, and possessed a strong fleet which secured them from the fear of hostile incursions. Hence arms were not borne in times of peace but stored away under charge of a slave, and Tacitus suggests in explanation that the royal policy did not commit this trust to noble, freeman or freedman. Their original territories lay on both sides of the Malar, in the provinces later known as Upland, Sodermanland and Westmanland. Tacitus mentions another tribe, the Sitones, which he places next to the Suiones, but they have not been identified, and it is not clear from his description whether they lived within the peninsula or not. The only information he gives about them is that they were ruled over by a woman. Other early Roman writers, Mela and Pliny, mention the country under the name Scandinavia (Skane), a name which in native records seems always to have been confined to the southernmost district in the peninsula. Little information, however, is given by these authorities with regard to the inhabitants.

The people next in importance to the Suiones in the peninsula (Swed. Gotar, O. N. Gautar, A. S. Geatas) are first mentioned by Ptolemy (under the form Goutai for Gautoi), together with a number of other tribal names, most of which unfortunately cannot be identified, owing to the corrupt state of the text. Ptolemy puts the Gotar in the southern part of the country, and from the earliest historical times their name has been given to the whole region between the Cattegat and the Baltic, exclusive of the provinces of Halland and Skane which down to the 17th century always belonged to Denmark. The coast of the Cattegat north of the Gota El y was reckoned in Norway. Gotaland consisted of the provinces of Vestergotland and Ostergotland divided from one another by Lake Vetter, together with Srrialand. In early times Vestergotland seems to have been by far the most important.

Vermland, the district to the north of Lake Vener and the whole of the country to the north of Svealand seem to have been of small importance. Jamtland was always considered a part of Norway. After the time of Ptolemy we Account of hear no more of Sweden until the 6th century, Jordanes. 3'?

a surprisingly full account of its peoples is given by the Gothic historian Jordanes. He mentions both the Svear (Swethans) and the Gotar together with other peoples, the names of several of which can be recognized in the district - names of later times, in spite of the numerous corruptions of the text. He praises the horses of the Svear and speaks of their great trade in furs of arctic animals which were transferred from merchant to merchant until they reached Rome. About the other peoples of Sweden he gives a few details, chiefly of physical or moral characteristics, commenting upon the warlike nature of the Visigauti, the mildness of the Finns, the lofty stature of the Vinovii and the meat and egg diet of the Rerefennae. Jordanes's statement regarding the prevalence of trade with Sweden is corroborated by the fact that many coins and bracteates of the period have been found in the country. Of these the coins are chiefly Roman and Byzantine gold pieces of the 5th century, the bracteates copies of Roman coins of the same period.

Procopius, the contemporary of Jordanes (Gothica, ii. 15) likewise gives an account of Sweden, which he calls Thule, but the only tribes which he names are the Skrithephinnoi Beowulf. (A. S. Scriaefinnas), a wild people of Finnish stock, and the Gotar (Gautoi) whom he describes as a " nation abounding in men." For the same period we derive a considerable amount of information with regard to Swedish affairs from the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf. The hero himself belonged to the Greatas (i.e. in all probability Gotar, though the identification is disputed by some scholars), his mother being the daughter of their king Hrethel. Haethcyn, the son and successor of this Hrethel, is said to have perished in a disastrous battle against the Svear, but his fall was avenged by his brother Hygelac in a subsequent engagement in which the Swedish king Ongentheow was killed. This Hygelac is clearly identical with that Chochilaicus wrongly described as a Danish king by Gregory of Tours (iii. 3) who made a piratical expedition to the lower Rhine which ended in his defeat and death in a battle with the Franks under Theodberht about A.D. 520. The poem contains several allusions to this disaster. We learn further that about the time of Hygelac's death strife broke out in the royal family of the Svear, between Onela, the son and successor of Ongentheow, and Eanmund and Eadgils, the sons of his brother Ohthere. The latter fled for protection to the Guar and the war which ensued cost the lives of Eanmund and of Heardred the son and successor of Hygelac. According to the poem Beowulf himself now became king of the Gotar and assisted Eadgils in a campaign which resulted in the death of Onela and the acquisition of the throne by his nephew. What is said in the poem with regard to the end of Beowulf belongs to the realm of myth, and for three centuries after this time we have no reference to Swedish affairs in English or other foreign authorities. Moreover after the time of Beowulf and Jordanes there are very few references to the kingdom of the Gotar and in Olaf Sktittkonung's time it was merely an earldom. The kingdom must have come to an end between the 6th and 10th centuries A.D., and probably quite early in that period.

The Ynglingatal, a poem said to have been composed by Th1060lfr of Hvin, court-poet of Harold Fairhair, king of Norway, The gives a genealogy of Harold's family, which it carries Ynglingatals back to the early kings of the Svear. Snorri Stur- and Tag- luson (1178-1241) the Icelandic author using this linga Saga. poem as a basis and amplifying it from other sources, wrote the Ynglinga Saga, which traces back the history of the family, generation by generation, to its beginning. In this saga AOils (the Eadgils of Beowulf), son of Ottarr is one of the most prominent figures. The account given of him agrees in general with the statements in Beowulf, though the nature of his relations with Ali (Onela) has been misunderstood. The decisive battle between the two kings is said to have taken place on the frozen surface of Lake Wener. Ongentheow appears to have been entirely forgotten in Norse tradition and his place is taken by a certain Egill. The saga further states that Aails was an enthusiastic horse-breeder and that he met with his death through a fall from his horse. This point is of interest in connexion with the notice of Jordanes, mentioned above, with regard to the horses of the Svear. Other northern authorities such as Saxo and the Hrolfs Saga Kraka represent Aails in a very unfavourable light as niggardly and addicted to sorcery.

The Ynglingatal and Ynglinga Saga enumerate Aail's ancestors to no less than seventeen generations, with short accounts of each. We have no means of checking the genealogy from other sources, and the majority of the characters are probably to be regarded as mythical. The origin of the family is traced to the god Frey, son of Niorar, who is said to have founded Upsala, the ancient capital of Sweden. His reign is represented as a golden age of peace and prosperity and the great wealth of the sanctuary is said to have taken its beginning from the offerings at his tomb. His full name appears to have been Yngvifreyr or Ingunar Freyr and his descendants are collectively termed Ynglingar, though we also occasionally meet with the name